Original Research
Nutrition & Cardiovascular Health

Relationship of Socio-Demographic Characteristics, Nutritional Status, and Red Meat Intake to Blood Cholesterol Level Among Staff in Universiti Sains Malaysia

Background

Hypercholesterolaemia, defined as elevated total blood cholesterol, is a major modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and represents one of Malaysia’s most pressing non-communicable disease challenges. Data from the Malaysian National Health and Morbidity Survey have consistently shown alarmingly high prevalence rates of hypercholesterolaemia among the adult population. The overall prevalence of elevated total cholesterol (defined as total cholesterol ≥5.2 mmol/L) among Malaysian adults has been estimated at approximately 47.7%, making it one of the most common metabolic risk factors in the country.

The relationship between dietary patterns and blood cholesterol levels has been extensively studied at the global level, with substantial evidence that dietary saturated fat and cholesterol intake contribute to elevated blood cholesterol, particularly low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Red meat, which includes beef, lamb, and goat, is a significant dietary source of saturated fat and cholesterol. While red meat also provides valuable nutrients including high-quality protein, iron, zinc, and B vitamins, excessive consumption has been associated with adverse effects on lipid profiles and increased cardiovascular risk in longitudinal cohort studies.

In the Malaysian dietary context, red meat consumption patterns are influenced by cultural preferences, religious practices, economic factors, and urbanisation-driven dietary changes. The traditional Malaysian diet historically featured a balance of protein sources, but rapid economic development and urbanisation have been associated with increased consumption of energy-dense foods, including red and processed meats, alongside declining physical activity levels. These dietary transitions have contributed to the rising burden of obesity, hypercholesterolaemia, and cardiovascular disease observed in Malaysia over recent decades.

This study examined the relationships between socio-demographic characteristics, nutritional status (measured by body mass index), red meat intake, and blood cholesterol levels among staff at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), one of Malaysia’s leading research universities located in Kelantan.

Study Design and Methods

The study employed a cross-sectional design among staff members of Universiti Sains Malaysia. Participants were assessed for socio-demographic characteristics including age, gender, ethnicity, educational level, and income. Anthropometric measurements including height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were obtained to assess nutritional status. Dietary information, with a focus on red meat consumption patterns including frequency and quantity, was collected through dietary assessment instruments.

Blood samples were obtained after overnight fasting and analysed for lipid profile parameters including total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides. Hypercholesterolaemia was defined according to established clinical criteria based on total cholesterol levels.

Key Findings

The study population demonstrated a high prevalence of hypercholesterolaemia, reflecting the well-documented national pattern of elevated blood cholesterol among Malaysian adults. This finding is particularly significant in an institutional setting, as university staff may be expected to have higher health literacy and better access to health information and services compared to the general population, yet still exhibited substantial cardiovascular metabolic risk.

Analysis of the relationship between socio-demographic factors and cholesterol levels revealed associations consistent with the broader epidemiological literature. Age was positively associated with cholesterol levels, reflecting the well-established tendency for blood cholesterol to increase with advancing age, particularly during middle adulthood. Gender differences in cholesterol profiles were also observed, consistent with the known hormonal influences on lipid metabolism.

Nutritional status, as measured by BMI, showed a significant relationship with blood cholesterol levels. Overweight and obese individuals demonstrated higher total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels compared to those with normal BMI. This association reflects the interconnected metabolic pathways linking excess adiposity to dyslipidaemia, with visceral adiposity particularly implicated in the metabolic dysregulation that drives lipid abnormalities.

The analysis of red meat consumption patterns and their relationship to blood cholesterol levels contributed to the understanding of dietary determinants of cardiovascular risk in this Malaysian population. Higher frequency of red meat intake was examined in relation to lipid parameters, recognising that the relationship between red meat consumption and blood cholesterol is mediated by the saturated fat content of the meat, portion sizes, cooking methods, and the overall dietary pattern in which red meat is consumed.

Implications for Workplace Health Promotion

These findings carry important implications for workplace health promotion programmes in Malaysian institutional settings. Universities and other large employers are well-positioned to implement structured health promotion initiatives that address the modifiable risk factors identified in this study. Workplace-based interventions have several advantages, including access to a captive population, the ability to create supportive environments (such as healthier cafeteria options), and the potential for peer support and social reinforcement of behaviour change.

Specific recommendations emerging from the findings include the implementation of regular cardiovascular health screening programmes for university staff, dietary education focusing on healthy fat intake and balanced protein sources, promotion of physical activity through workplace exercise programmes and facilities, and the provision of healthier food options in campus dining facilities. The high prevalence of hypercholesterolaemia observed in this study suggests that passive health information provision alone is insufficient, and more active, structured intervention programmes may be needed to achieve meaningful improvements in cardiovascular risk profiles.

Limitations

The cross-sectional design of this study limits the ability to establish causal relationships between dietary factors and blood cholesterol levels. Self-reported dietary intake is subject to recall bias and social desirability bias, and may not accurately reflect habitual dietary patterns. The study was conducted at a single institution, and the findings may not be fully generalisable to other populations or workplace settings in Malaysia. Additionally, dietary factors beyond red meat intake, including total saturated fat, trans fat, fibre, and other dietary components, also influence blood cholesterol levels and were not comprehensively addressed in this analysis.

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